Tumor cells are known to express tumor-specific antigens on the cell surface. These antigens are believed to be poorly immunogenic, largely because they represent gene products of oncogenes or other cellular genes which are normally present in the host and are therefore not clearly recognized as nonself. Although numerous investigators have tried to target immune responses against epitopes from various tumor specific antigens, none have been successful in eliciting adequate tumor immunity in vivo (71).
Humans are particularly vulnerable to cancer as a result of an ineffective immunogenic response (72). In fact, the poor immunogenicity of relevant cancer antigens has proven to be the single greatest obstacle to successful immunotherapy with tumor vaccines (73). Over the past 30 years, literally thousands of patients have been administered tumor cell antigens as vaccine preparations, but the results of these trials have demonstrated that tumor cell immunization has failed to provide a rational basis for the design or construction of effective vaccines. Even where patients express tumor-specific antibodies or cytotoxic T-cells, this immune response does not correlate with a suppression of the associated disease. This failure of the immune system to protect the host may be due to expression of tumor antigens that are poorly immunogenic or to heterologous expression of specific antigens by various tumor cells. The appropriate presentation of tumor antigens in order to elicit an immune response effective in inhibiting tumor growth remains a central issue in the development of an effective cancer vaccine.
Chemokines are a group of usually small secreted proteins (7-15 kDa) induced by inflammatory stimuli and are involved in orchestrating the selective migration, diapedesis and activation of blood-born leukocytes that mediate the inflammatory response (23,26). Chemokines mediate their function through interaction with specific cell surface receptor proteins (23). At least four chemokine subfamilies have been identified as defined by a cysteine signature motif, termed CC, CXC, C and CX3C, where C is a cysteine and X is any amino acid residue. Structural studies have revealed that at least both CXC and CC chemokines share very similar tertiary structure (monomer), but different quaternary structure (dimer) (120-124). For the most part, conformational differences are localized to sections of loop or the N-terminus.
There remains a great need for a method of presenting tumor antigens, which are known to be poorly immunogenic, “self” antigens to a subject's immune system in a manner that elicits an immune response powerful enough to inhibit the growth of tumor cells in the subject. This invention overcomes the previous limitations and shortcomings in the art by providing a fusion protein comprising a viral chemokine and a tumor antigen which can produce an in vivo immune response, resulting in the inhibition of tumor cells. There is also a continuing need for a method of presenting poorly antigenic viral antigens to a subject's immune system, particularly as relates to viral antigens such as HIV antigens. This invention also overcomes previous shortcomings in the field of viral vaccine development by providing a fusion protein comprising a viral chemokine and a viral antigen which is effective as a vaccine for treating or preventing viral infection.